REPORT 


TD 819 
• N6 F6 
Copy 1 

ON 

EXAMINATION OF PERSONNEL, METHODS OF WORK 
AND EQUIPMENT 

of the 


DEPARTMENT OF STREET CLEANING 

NEW YORK CITY 

With Special Reference to 
THE INSTALLATION OF A MODEL DISTRICT 

in the 

BOROUGH OF MANHATTAN 


Made to 

COMMISSIONER JOHN T. FETHERSTON 
By 

RICHARD T. FOX 


December, 1915 



























REPORT 


ON 

EXAMINATION OF PERSONNEL, METHODS OF WORK 
AND EQUIPMENT 

of the 

DEPARTMENT OF STREET CLEANING 

NEW YORK CITY 


With Special Reference to 
THE INSTALLATION OF A MODEL DISTRICT 


in the 

BOROUGH OF MANHATTAN 


Made to 

COMMISSIONER JOHN T. FETHERSTON 


By 

RICHARD T. FOX 


December, 1915 




PRESS OF 

CLARENCES. NATHAN, INC., 
NEW YORK. 


D. of D. 

SEP i 15 1916 


cv ' r 






271 


2714-16-1,000 (N) 


o 




December 18, 1915. 


Commissioner John T. Fetherston, 

Department of Street Cleaning, 

New York City, N. Y. 

Dear Sir: 

I submit herewith a report on my examination of the per¬ 
sonnel, methods of work and equipment of the Department of 
Street Cleaning, with especial reference to the installation of a 
Model Street Cleaning District in the Borough of Manhattan. 

The limited time at my disposal precluded any attempt to 
make a detailed technical investigation of the Department. 
The treatment of the subject under consideration is, therefore, 
informal, and not exhaustive. The matter presented is based 
on observations in May and August last of the present condition 
and work of the Department, on my. knowledge of the operations 
of the Department and its problems, gained during seven years’ 
(1895 to 1902) connection with it in various official capacities, 
and on published reports on file in the Department. 

Respectfully yours, 

Richard T. Fox. 


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RECOMMENDATIONS 


The following recommendations concern the Department 
as a whole. The recommendations made further on may be 
adopted in the Model District and later applied to the entire 
city or to such portions of the city as may be decided upon: 

1. That the administrative control of the Department 
be made continuous by the employment of a trained and 
competent Commissioner and trained and competent Deputy 
Commissioners of street cleaning whose tenure of office will 
be determined by the results obtained in the conduct of the 
work of the Department. 

The employment of these officials to-day violates every 
principle of sound business management. 

The Department of Street Cleaning, rightly considered, is a 
business enterprise. It employs 7,000 people and expends an 
average of approximately nine million dollars annually. Like 
every business concern, its object is the production of dividends— 
in this case, clean streets, the efficient and sanitary collection 
and disposal of millions of cubic yards of city waste, and the prompt 
removal of millions of cubic yards of snow annually in the interest 
of the convenience, comfort and health of every individual man, 
woman and child making up the more than five million people 
in the City of New York. 

Yet in the past seventeen years, the administrative control 
of the Department has been changed on an average of 
once every two years. In the four-year term of one Mayor, 
there were five different commissioners of street cleaning. 

Furthermore, a most astonishing fact from a business view¬ 
point, is that of all the commissioners who have held office since 
the creation of the Department in 1881, only one, the present 
Commissioner, had any previous experience in conducting street 
cleaning operations. 

The result of such a situation was the inability of a com¬ 
missioner to fit himself to obtain control and direction of the 
Department before he was replaced. Therefore, as no sub¬ 
ordinate officer in the classified service was qualified to conduct 
the work or render effective assistance to the Commissioner, the 
actual control of the Department, with one exception, has been 
very weak. 

These changes mean deterioration in discipline and morale, 
and a lack of continuous policy or plan in the conduct of the work, 
so it is not surprising that few improvements have been made in 


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the personnel, methods of work or equipment in the past seventeen 
years. The wonder, on the contrary, is that the Department is 
not completely disorganized. 

A business venture on these lines would be bankrupt shortly. 

The great success of Col. Waring seems to go counter to 
these contentions, but it must be remembered that Col. Waring 
was an exceptional man and that he worked under certain favor¬ 
able conditions that have not existed since he was Commissioner 
of Street Cleaning. 

He was genuinely interested in his work and did it for its 
own sake. He had a genius for organization and control of men. 
He possessed executive ability of a high order. He had great 
determination. His training as a sanitary engineer gave him a 
quick insight into the problems confronting him, and suggested 
sound and orderly methods of study and procedure. But the 
promptness with which he was able to reorganize the Department 
and obtain complete mastery of the working force, was due to a 
free hand in the selection, appointment and dismissal of employees 
from the Deputy Commissioner down to the last sweeper or 
driver. 

Because of Civil Service restrictions and the failure of suc¬ 
ceeding commissioners to follow Col. Waring’s plans of appor¬ 
tioning work and accounting for work done, which form a basis 
for determining fitness and unfitness, and the building up of an 
efficient organization, a number of years of continuous, able, 
effort will be required to accomplish what Col. Waring was able 
to do in the three years of his administration. 

The present day sanitary demands of comfort and health 
require an intensive study of the subjects involved herein, com¬ 
prehensive and scientific planning of work, and special knowledge 
and executive ability in control and direction of it. 

Real efficiency is not a mushroom growth. It is the result 
of continuous application in the investigation and study of organi¬ 
zation, of the control and direction of men, of scientific methods 
of work and of equipment. 

These ends cannot be acquired under the present method of 
employing Commissioners. 

The Department is particularly in need of an efficient organi¬ 
zation when it has to contend with an emergency such as the 
removal of a big snowfall. This is a tremendous work, especially 
in New s York, and exceedingly difficult even when conducted 
under the best circumstances. 

2. That the Commissioner of Street Cleaning be given 

greater latitude in the expenditure of appropriations. 

The segregated budget has been developed to the point where 
the smallest item of expense is now scheduled and appropriated 
for independently. 

In probably no business does the working conditions vary 
so much as in street cleaning and the collection of waste; yet 
the Commissioner of Street Cleaning must say in October, or earlier, 
just what each item of expense will be required for the year begin¬ 
ning the following January and what appropriation is asked for it. 

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Distribution of Dust on Street Surface. 
















Under such circumstances, there will be an excess of appropriation 
in some items and a shortage in others. 

The tendency of such a program is to interfere with the proper 
conduct of the work and to encourage, towards the end of the 
year, extravagance in over-appropriated items and possible 
neglect in accounts nearly depleted. 

Proper and full accounting is necessary and of course must 
be insisted upon, but the Commissioner should be allowed more 
discretion in making expenditures. If he is fit to serve the City 
of New York as Commissioner, he must be fit for a trust of this 
kind. 


3. The co-operation of the Courts and of the Departments 
of Police and Health in the enforcement of the clean street 
ordinances, of the Dock Department in the provision of 
adequate dock facilities for waste removal and dumping 
of snow, of the Bureau of Highways in the construction of 
streets and repairs to streets, of the Bureau of Buildings 
in the control of permits to occupy the streets during the 
construction of buildings, and of the Bureau of Sewers, 
in the cleaning of catchbasins and sewers, is necessary to 
economy and efficiency in cleaning the streets and in the 
collection and removal of city wastes. 

The Departments of Police, Health and Docks are under 
the jurisdiction of the Mayor. The Bureaus of Highways, 
Buildings, and Sewers are controlled by the Borough Presidents. 

It is unfortunate that such activities as repairs to streets 
and sidewalks, the control of permits to occupy or disturb the 
street pavements, and the cleaning of sewers and catch basins, 
which concern so intimately the work apportioned to the Street 
Cleaning Department, are not within the jurisdiction of the 
Mayor. He is popularly credited with the responsibility for the 
manner in which these services are rendered. 

The ideal condition would find these matters combined 
with street cleaning and in charge of the Commissioner of Street 
Cleaning. 

The kind of street pavement affects the cost of street cleaning, 
but the organization required in the construction of streets differs 
so materially from that of the Street Cleaning Department, that 
this work is better controlled by a separate department. 

4. That the cleaning and flushing of sidewalks for which 
no one, official or householder, is now responsible, be added 
to the duties of the Street Cleaning Department. 

A condition of thorough cleanliness is impossible in the 
roadways if the sidewalks are neglected. 

5. That, although there is a large proportion of com¬ 
petent men in the uniformed force, the personnel is open to 
much improvement. The quality of work of the sweeping 
force, particularly, should be bettered, resulting in a higher 
state of cleanliness at no increase in cost. 


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These men have the highest pay and the best working con¬ 
ditions as to vacations, sick time and pensions, of any labor of 
this class in the United States. The city should receive service 
commensurate with these rewards. 

6. That the Department be kept abreast of the times 
in the adoption of the improved methods of street cleaning 
and improved street cleaning equipment. 

A few bits of up-to-date equipment have been bought from 
time to time by the Department, but they can hardly be con¬ 
sidered in the light of the great need of the service in this respect. 
Otherwise, the methods of work and the equipment is the same 
as seventeen years ago, in the days of Col. Waring. 

7. That the block by block survey and analysis and 
study of conditions, now under way, affecting the quantity 
of work the individual sweeper or driver or other unit is 
capable of performing, be made a permanent duty of the 
Department, as these conditions are constantly changing. 

The value of this work lies in removing the determination 
of the unit quantity of work from the realm of opinion to a basis 
of fact. The accountability of men and machines is fairly fixed 
and a reaction from the record can be reasonably obtained. 

8. That cost finding methods be devised which will 
not only give correct figures but figures which will represent 
facts which can be made the basis of comparisons and deduc¬ 
tions. 

Cost schemes in many cities merely subdivide the total 
outlay among the various activities of work—so much for sweep¬ 
ing, for carting, for final disposal, etc. To be of use and to insure 
close control of the work, these costs must be so kept that district 
costs may be compared with district costs, section costs with 
section costs, and even sweeping route with sweeping route. 

9. That a school of instruction for both officers and men 
in the importance and value of clean streets and in the best 
methods of work and in the best use of equipment for obtain¬ 
ing them, be given every encouragement. 

10. That the plan put into effect by the present Com¬ 
missioner for enlisting the co-operation of the public, which 
is excellent, be continued and extended. 

MODEL DISTRICT 

The primary object of the Model District, which originated 
with the present Commissioner, is to furnish a small area repre¬ 
senting the different types of street conditions found throughout 
the city, in which to install the most up-to-date methods of work 
and equipment that can be obtained and gradually to extend the 
system to cover the entire city. The secondary purpose is to 
provide a proving ground for new developments, from time to 
time, in methods of work and equipment before final adoption. 


9 


The ultimate object of all street cleaning operations is, or 
should be, the elimination of dust, which causes damage to prop¬ 
erty, is an annoyance and irritation to the eyes, nose and throat 
of the individual and serves as a medium for conveying the germs 
of disease. 

To combat the dust successfully requires intensive work, 
thoroughness in cleaning, flushing, and day sprinkling, and careful 
attention to every detail. 

The recommendations following are designed to accomplish 
these ends. They are in force in the work I am now conducting, 
and they have given satisfactory results for a number of years. 


Recommendations Affecting the Installation of the Model District 

1. That hand cleaning only be employed, supplemented 
by flushing or washing with water under pressure. 

2. That the intensive method of street cleaning described 
hereafter, be adopted. 

3. That the value of inspection cannot be over-empha¬ 
sized in any attempt to maintain high standards of street 
cleaning, and therefore the supervisory force be composed 
of A No. 1 men, intelligent, industrious and observing. That 
the laborers be alert and active and capable of maintaining 
the standards of work set. 

4. That leggins be added to the uniform now used, to 
protect the trousers and to add completeness to the equipment. 

An order requiring the men to polish their shoes daily is of 
great value in impressing the importance of neatness and attention 
to detail in their daily street cleaning tasks. 

5. That the sidewalks be included with the roadway, 
and the street cleaned from house line to house line. 

6. That the street cleaning implements consist of a 
broom and shovel for cleaning rough pavements, and a broom 
and scraper for cleaning smooth pavements. The broom to 
be made of sufficiently fine material to insure thorough work. 

7. The implements used in cleaning the sidewalks to 
consist of a pan shown in Photograph Ne. 3, and a horsehair, 
or other fine broom. 

8. That boxes with hinged tops and of sufficient capacity 
to care for the entire day’s output of street dirt, be placed 
at convenient intervals on the sidewalk, or preferably sunk 
in the sidewalk, for the temporary storage of the dirt as 
collected by the street sweeper, and that, for esthetic as well 
as economic reasons, the street sweepings be collected at 
night only. 

The street dirt is then out of sight and protected from scatter¬ 
ing by traffic and the wind. The sweeper can work more rapidly 
than with the two-wheel cart receptacle. 


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9. That the roadways be flushed nightly with motor- 
driven machines, carrying tanks, from which the water is 
forced out under the necessary pressure to obtain efficient 
washing of the streets. That the sidewalks be washed by 
machine, and hand squeegeed nightly, or as often as necessary. 

10. That a sufficient number of street sweepers be 
employed after four o’clock, the quitting time of the day 
force, to pick up the heavy dirt preparatory to flushing the 
streets, and thus prevent frequent filling of the catch basins, 
and possible obstruction of the sewers. The adoption of 
this plan will mean clean streets practically through the 
twenty-four hours. 

The men required for this service can be estimated roughly 
as one-tenth of the number employed for cleaning during the day. 

11. That the streets be lightly sprinkled through the 
day, as often as found necessary. The sprinkling should be 
confined to the gutters, and the space four or five feet there¬ 
from, for the tendency of traffic and the slope of the street 
is to force the dust to the gutter. On streets carrying car 
tracks, the right-of-way, which collects considerable dust, 
should also be lightly sprinkled. 

12. That when the temperature does not permit of 
sprinkling, the men sweeping the sidewalks be required to 
remove any noticeable collections of dust in the roadways. 
A vacuum cleaner, if it can be made practicable for this 
purpose, would serve a valuable end. 

13. That the functions of sprinkling, flushing, and 
removal of street sweepings, be co-ordinated, if possible, with 
operation of the power-driven equipment now being installed 
for the latter purpose. 

14. That checks on the density of traffic, changes in 
pavement, the amount of refuse collected by each sweeper, 
etc., be made from time to time and followed by such read¬ 
justment of the route areas as are found necessary. Also 
that checks be made at regular intervals to determine if the 
set standards of cleanliness are being maintained. 


DETAILS OF REPORT 

DUTIES OF THE DEPARTMENT 

The Department of Street Cleaning is charged with the 
cleaning of the streets, the removal of snow, the collection and 
disposal of ashes, garbage, street sweepings and rubbish, and the 
removal of street incumbrances, in the Boroughs of Manhattan, 
Brooklyn, and the Bronx. 

This work involved, in 1914, the cleaning of 28,481,017 
square yards of street pavement—the equivalent of 1,487.5 
miles of street, the removal of 5,180,126 cubic yards -of snow, 
the collection and disposal of 9,635,403 cubic yards of waste of 
all kinds, and the seizure of 4,183 incumbrances. 


11 


Extent of Work 

These operations extended over an area of 140.2 square 
miles, and affected the convenience, comfort and health of over 
5,000,000 people. The number of employees regularly employed 
was approximately 7,000. This number is augmented to as high 
as 20,500 to care for a snow storm of extreme severity. The 
expenditures for 1914 were approximately $8,000,000, exclusive 
of the cost of snow removal; which naturally varies with the 
amount of snowfall. In 1914 $2,464,736.25 were expended for 
this purpose. This, it may be said, was a year of extremely heavy 
snow. 


Administrative Control 

The head of the Department of Street Cleaning has the title 
“Commissioner of Street Cleaning.” He has entire administrative 
control of the Department, subject only to the word of the Mayor. 

The Commissioner’s authority is exercised through four 
Deputy Commissioners, one of whom is designated a Deputy-at- 
Large. The others are assigned, one to each of the three Boroughs, 
and each has control of all department work in his respective 
Borough. 

The Commissioner and his Deputies are appointed to office 
by the Mayor, and are removable at his pleasure. 

Supervisory Direction 

The supervisory direction of the Department falls into two 
natural divisions. The uniformed or field force, of which the 
General Superintendent is the head, and the clerical force, which 
is in charge of a Chief Clerk. These two officials, and all other 
employees, hold their positions under Civil Service regulations. 

Form of Organization 

For purposes of an orderly performance of the various func¬ 
tions of the Department, each Borough is divided into districts, 
which are in control of District Superintendents, who are responsi¬ 
ble to the Deputy Commissioners for all conditions affecting the 
department in their respective districts. The districts are 
subdivided into sections, in charge of Section Foremen, who 
are accountable to their District Superintendents for results. 
The sections are divided for the purpose of hand-cleaning, and 
the collection of waste, into individual sweeping and carting 
routes, for the proper care of which the individual sweepers and 
individual cart drivers are answerable to the foreman. 

Machine cleaning, washing or flushing of the streets, and 
the removal of snow, are conducted on schedules arranged espe¬ 
cially for these ends. Each District Superintendent operates 
a crew of men for the seizure of incumbrances within his district. 

This plan of organization is excellent for the control of work 
of this nature where hundreds of individuals are working at as 
many different points on different classes of work over an extensive 

12 



No. 2. Removal of Fine Dust. Street After Heavy Material Is Picked Up. 















area. It is much better suited to these particular conditions 
than the functional type of organization, which would entail 
duplicate and even triplicate supervision of the same territory. 
It defines, without any possibility of misunderstanding, the 
duties of each man. It fixes responsibility for the care of every 
square foot of street surface, and of every waste receptacle within 
the jurisdiction of the department. If efficiently carried into 
effect through proper direction, strict supervision and close 
inspection, the measure of discipline necessary to insure a proper 
and thorough performance of the work, is obtained. 

Magnitude of Task Involved 

The task of performing the work here outlined with efficiency 
and economy, and at the same time, in the best interests of the 
public, is tremendous. It will be agreed that as it affects the 
comfort and health of every individual in the city, it is of the 
greatest importance, and that it calls for the continuous efforts, 
close application, and the untiring industry of the highest ability 
it is possible to secure. The necessity for study and experiment 
to determine the methods of work, and the equipment best suited 
to the requirements of each class of work, likewise is apparent. 

In the conduct of a large business enterprise of any kind 
with dividends the goal, the selection of the best management 
obtainable, and the adoption of the most approved methods of 
work, and of adequate and up-to-date equipment, are matters 
of course. 


HISTORY OF THE DEPARTMENT 

A brief history of the Department of Street Cleaning since 
its inception, will make clear how differently the work of cleaning 
the streets has been undertaken. It will also bring out the 
problems which have confronted the Department, the difficulties 
which lay in the way of their solution, how they have been 
overcome, in a measure, and what yet remains to be done before 
the streets are cleaned and the wastes collected efficiently and 
economically. 

The Department of Street Cleaning was created by law in 
1881. Previous to this date the cleaning of the streets was in 
charge of a Bureau of the Police Department. 

The First Administration 

James S. Coleman, the first Commissioner under the new 
law, held the office for nine years, or until January 17, 1890. 
During his administration street cleaning was done entirely 
under the contract system, by the machine method of cleaning, 
only. The results could not have been but very perfunctory 
because of the infrequent cleaning of the streets. Of the 115 
miles of street south of 14th Street, five miles were scheduled 
to be cleaned once every twenty-four hours; thirty-two miles 
were to be cleaned on alternate days, and the balance were to 

14 


be cleaned twice a week. To-day all of these streets are cleaned 
at least four times each weekday, and once on Sunday; and yet, 
conditions in this part of the city are not up to the standard 
demanded by modem sanitary requirements. 

Impediments to Clean Streets 

Commissioner Coleman’s report, made in 1889, in detailing 
impediments to his work, shows that the same difficulties that 
made street cleaning arduous then exist to-day, except in a much 
less aggravated form. He enumerates badly paved streets, 
want of proper receptacles for ashes and garbage, innumerable 
street incumbrances of all kinds, the obstmctions arising from 
the operations of the various private corporations in laying under¬ 
ground work. The latter were of a most serious nature: “ These 
corporations,” he says, “tore up the streets, dug trenches, threw 
the dirt carelessly on the carriage ways and piled paving stone, 
lumber and other constmctional material on them, in defiance 
of the ordinances and against the protestations of the public.” 
The abuse of the streets was carried to such intolerable dimensions 
that the Grand Jury seriously discussed suppressing it. The 
Academy of Medicine stated that the conditions created by these 
private corporations were liable to lead to severe outbreaks of 
malarial and intestinal diseases. The Board of Aldermen and 
the Chamber of Commerce also agitated the question of securing 
reform. 

The violations of the city ordinances and the laws of the 
Health Department were most flagrant. Insufficient ash and 
garbage receptacles caused these to overflow on to the sidewalk 
and into the streets, or the surplus material was deliberately 
flung into the streets. The ragpicker was allowed to dig into 
cans of rubbish and of decomposing garbage, and to ply his trade 
undisturbed. 

The law regulating the deposit of building material and 
rubbish in the streets was not observed. Of this Commissioner 
Coleman said, “It is notorious that this law is not complied with 
and the material becomes spread over the streets and the neighbor¬ 
hood becomes an eyesore and an offense. High winds scatter 
the sand and when rain falls, passing vehicles turn the earth 
into mud and distribute it along the streets. Again in numerous 
instances the material is so placed that the free flowage of water 
along the gutter is obstructed and pools of stagnant water form 
on the streets.” 

Horace Loomis succeeded Commissioner Coleman, and held 
the office of Commissioner from January 17, 1890 to April 4, 1890, 
when Hans S. Beattie was appointed. He was succeeded by 
Thomas F. Brennan September 17, 1891. 

Reorganization of the Department 

In 1892, following an exhaustive examination and report 
on the subject of street cleaning by a committee of citizens, at 
the request of Mayor Grant, the Department was entirely reor¬ 
ganized and Mr. Brennan was re-appointed Commissioner. 

15 


The finding of the Advisory Committee was that the Depart¬ 
ment was not efficiently managed—-“the standard being the 
management of well established private corporations engaged in 
large enterprises.” The Committee considered it inefficient in 
the following respects: 

(1) In the employment of labor. 

(2) In the location of plant. 

(3) Insufficiency of plant. 

(4) In lack of proper organization and disposition of its 

forces. 

The Advisory Committee laid emphasis on the pernicious 
practice employed in the appointment and dismissal of employees. 
From the testimony of Commissioner Beattie before the Fassett 
Investigating Committee, and his conversations with the Advisory 
Committee, the latter reached the following conclusions: 

“That in the employment of labor the Department has, 
measurably speaking, little or nothing to do with the selection 
of its own employees. 

“They are ‘appointed and removed principally at the whim 
of persons’ (unconnected with the Department) ‘making request 
to that effect.’ 

“They are selected without reference to their ability to do 
the given work for which they are employed, and are liable to 
discharge without good business reasons therefor. 

“The employment of laborers by the Department is in the 
hands of the Deputy Commissioner, and ‘men come to him per¬ 
sonally, who through their friends, or with their friends—and 
their friends are men who take an active interest in these (public) 
matters—Aldermen, Assemblymen, etc.—and apply to the 
Deputy.” 

In a work in which labor is the principal item of expense, 
and which is dependent for its efficiency on the kind of labor 
employed, and its proper direction, the location and sufficiency 
of plant was a matter of minor moment by comparison. Nor 
under such conditions, would a proper organization and dis¬ 
position of the department forces have been possible. The 
Advisory Committee concluded that: “With good labor, skill¬ 
fully organized, and properly superintended, the streets can 
unquestionably be kept clean. With labor employed on the 
present methods, no organization however skillful, and no super¬ 
intendence, however faithful, can produce entirely satisfactory 
results.” 


Disregard of Clean Street Ordinances 

The Advisory Committee was equally as forcible as Com¬ 
missioner Coleman in its condemnation of the utter disregard 
of the adequate laws and ordinances regulating the proper use of 
the streets. 

After reciting these laws and ordinances, the Committee 
expressed the opinion that New York should be one of the cleanest 


16 


cities in the world, “ while practically it is one of the dirtiest, 
because they [the laws and ordinances] are so habitually violated 
and so feebly enforced as to become dead letters.” 


Report of Committee Gets at Root of Matter 

The report of the Committee is an excellent one, and got 
at the root of the difficulties of an effective administration of the 
Street Cleaning Department. It resulted in the reorganization 
of the Department, in an increase by law of the number of laborers, 
and in an appropriation by the Board of Estimate and Apportion¬ 
ment for the purchase of its own horses, carts and other equipment. 

The law under which the Department was reorganized 
provided that the principal method of cleaning the streets should 
be by hand under the patrol or block system. It further provided 
that the streets should be swept and cleaned daily, and throughout 
the day. 


Defect of Most Importance Not Corrected 

• The defect of the most vital importance to the efficient 
management of the Department, and therefore to the production 
of satisfactory results in the streets—the method of employing 
labor—was not corrected. It is not surprising, then, that there 
was no general improvement in the work of the Department 
such as was expected to follow its reorganization. On the contrary, 
a committee of the City Club was so concerned with the condition 
of the streets that charges, accompanied with photographs to 
substantiate them, were preferred against Commissioner Brennan 
with a view to securing his removal for neglect of duty. 

No consideration seems to have been given the fact that the 
causes for these conditions were beyond the control of Com¬ 
missioner Brennan, whether he was competent or not, nor was 
the responsibility for the causes placed where it properly belonged 
—on the political interference with the conduct of the work. 


Commissioner Andrews Hampered by Politics 

Following Commissioner Brennan’s resignation somewhat 
later, W. S. Andrews succeeded him July 21, 1893. While 
Commissioner Andrews was able to get some amendments to 
the law under which the Department was reorganized, that were 
of great benefit to the Department, and was also able to make 
some improvements in the service, his control of the working 
force was ineffective. He stated that he had been promised a 
free hand in appointments and dismissals, but that the pressure 
from the outside for the appointment of incompetent men, and 
for the reinstatement of men dismissed for sufficient cause, became 
so annoying that he gave in; and from that time on his authority 
over the men was practically nullified. 


17 


Administration of Col. George E. Waring 

Col. George E. Waring followed, on January 15, 1895, Mr. 
Andrews as Commissioner of Street Cleaning. He had tried 
for some years, he told me, to get a chance to clean the streets 
of New York on his own terms. These were that he should have 
complete control of the work against any suggestion of political 
or other outside influences inimical to the formation and the 
direction of an efficient organization. 

Mayor Strong agreed to these conditions, and, it may be said, 
faithfully kept his word. 

Conditions To Be Met 

The condition of the streets at this time, and the demoraliztion 
of the Department, were matters of notoriety. “In wet weather 
the streets were covered with mud and slime, and in dry weather 
the air was filled with dust. Artificial sprinkling in summer 
converted the dust into mud, and the drying winds changed the 
mud to powder. It was not always possible to see the pavement 
because of the dust that covered it.” The streets were poorly 
paved, and in a bad state of repair. The sidewalks, on many 
of the streets, were continuously lined with overflowing ash and 
garbage receptacles. Except on some of the residence streets, 
the roadways were full of unharnessed trucks and other vehicles 
(to the number, it was estimated, of 20,000) which interfered 
with the work of the street sweepers, and of the Fire Department # 

Enforcement of Clean Street Ordinances Still Lags 

But little improvement had been made in the enforcement 
of the laws, and ordinances governing the littering of the streets, 
the temporary deposit of building and other material on the 
streets, the disturbance and restoration of street pavement, 
the provision for adequate and sufficient garbage and ash cans, 
and other laws and ordinances enacted for the purposes of keeping 
the streets and sidewalks tidy, and for lightening the expense of 
street cleaning. 

The personnel of the Department was what might be expected, 
very poor, but there were many good men among the employees 
who simply lacked proper instruction and direction to make them 
effective workers. 

Reorganization of the Working Force 

Col. Waring first, after appointing a Deputy of his own 
selection, gave his attention to the incompetent officers who were 
displaced, and the positions were filled, as a rule with men of 
military or technical training; most of them young men. 

At this time the much-complained of bar to discipline and 
therefore to anything like effective work—the method of employing 
labor was still subject to some baneful influences, but their 
doom lay in the determined will of Col. Waring and in the authority 
placed in his hands. 


18 



No. 3. Equipment of Sidewalk Sweeper 















The discharge of inefficient laborers who found reinstatement 
by reference to their sponsors, political or otherwise, ineffective, 
soon convinced the members of the Department that the Com¬ 
missioner of Street Cleaning was in sole control, and if they were 
to remain in the service, his orders must be obeyed. Nor was it 
long before they were cognizant of the fact that Col. Waring 
was doing the work, as he often stated, for its own sake alone, 
and that as long as they did their part, they were safe in their 
positions; and if they did good work recognition of it was sure. 

Freedom From Politics Brings Results 

Every man was thoroughly instructed in his particular duty. 
All orders from the Commissioner were in writing, and were con¬ 
spicuously posted in the section stations and stables so no one 
could plead ignorance of their contents. The rules and regulations 
governing the operation of the Department, and the prescribed 
punishments for violation thereof, were likewise printed and 
posted, so that everyone was presumed to be familiar with them, - 
and to know what failure to observe them would mean. 

Frequent and thorough inspections of Jshe work of the men, 
and the strict application of the rules of the Department in every. 
case, soon weeded out the laggards, and the incompetents, and in 
a very short time every man was doing a fair day’s work. In a 1 
few months there was a transformation in the appearance of the 
streets, and by the end of the year the streets had been freed of 
the incumbering trucks, and other vehicles, and were really clean. 

All of this had been accomplished quietly, without turning 
the Department upside down, by a competent man of determina¬ 
tion, who was allowed absolute control of his work. It was done 
with practically the same force of men, and with practically the 
same equipment used by his predecessor, at an increase in expense 
from $2,336,419.49 to $2,704,577.26. 

There was no miracle about it; the same success is possible 
to any capable man with the same freedom of action. 

The Board of Conference 

An important link in establishing the right sort of relations 
between the Commissioner and his men was the Board of Con¬ 
ference, which was made up of representatives elected by the 
sweepers and drivers themselves. If a man had a grievance or 
complaint of any kind, he referred it to his representative, who 
presented it to the Committee in meeting. The Committee’s de¬ 
cision was referred to the Commissioner for final action. If the 
complainant still felt that justice was not done, he was encouraged 
to go personally and present his case direct to the Commissioner. 

The Juvenile League 

The formation of the Juvenile Street Cleaning League was 
an effective aid to the Department, especially in educating the 
foreign element of the population in the work of the Department 
through their children. 


20 


Clean Street Ordinances Are More Strictly Enforced 

While there was no particular zeal exhibited by the police 
in the enforcement of the laws and ordinances controlling the 
use of the streets, there was a great improvement in the observance 
of these laws, due, in a large measure, to the example set by the 
Department in keeping the streets clean, and the refuse receptacles 
emptied and off the sidewalk, an apt illustration of the saying 
that cleanliness is catching. The exercise of the police powers 
conferred on the officers of the Department for the enforcement 
of such ordinances as affected the work of the Department was 
also an important factor in the improvement of conditions. 

Report of Allotment of Work 

An important service was rendered the street cleaning business 
in a comprehensive investigation and study of the difficulties 
incident to street cleaning in the matter of kind of pavement, 
condition of pavement, volume of traffic, character of population, 
and other factors affecting the amount of work a man should 
do as a daily task. The results of this study were published 
in the last year of Col. Waring’s administration, with the recom¬ 
mendation that the studies be continued with the expectation 
that further search and experience would disclose information 
for the establishment of definite standards of work. 

Weak Points in Control of Department 

The weak points in the administration of the Department to 
this time were due to— 

(1) Political interference with the Commissioner in 
the exercise of his authority. 

(2) The method of employing labor. 

(3) The lack of co-operation of other Departments in 
the enforcement of the laws and ordinances affecting the 
condition of the streets. 

The administration of Col. Waring proved the first two points 
when he showed in a very practical way that an efficient man, 
with absolute control of the Department and full authority in 
the selection, appointment and discharge of employees and the 
ability to lay out his work to the best advantage, could clean the 
streets and keep them clean. 

By reason of the fact that he did clean the streets, he received 
a greater measure of co-operation from other City departments 
than had been given his predecessors in office. 

First Administration Under New Charter 

Following Col. Waring’s resignation, December 31, 1897, 
James McCartney was appointed Commissioner, and served as 
the first Commissioner of Street Cleaning under the Greater New 
York charter. Street cleaning in the Borough of Brooklyn was 
annexed at this time to the Department of Street Cleaning. 


21 


From 1898 to the present the following Commissioners held 
office for the periods of time indicated: 

Held Office 

Appointed - 

Years Months 


James McCartney. 

P. E. Nagle. 

J. McG. Woodbury 

M. Craven. 

W. Bensel. 

F. Crowell. 

Wm. H. Edwards. 
J. T. Fetherston... 


Jan. 1, 1898 2 

Feb. 10, 1900 2 

Jan. 1, 1902 4 

Oct. 22, 1906 1 

July 8, 1907 0 

Nov. 23, 1907 1 

Jan. 1, 1909 5 

Jan. 1, 1914 


1 

11 

10 

8 

4 

2 


During this period no definite progress was made in the con¬ 
trol of the Department or in street cleaning methods or in the 
equipment used. 

Personnel 


The persohnel of the supervisory force of the Department is, 
in the main, very good, but needs to be instructed and properly 
directed. In intelligence, industry and loyalty these men compare 
favorably with the men doing similar work in private employ. 

In examining the personnel of the sweeping force, we find 
that the pay of the sweeper is excellent, just now $840.00 per year. 
He also receives two weeks vacation annually, sick time under 
certain limitations, and a life pension if he has reached a fixed 
age after twenty years’ service. 

Under such unusually favorable working conditions, which 
have no parallel in the business world for labor of this class, we 
expect to find a body of alert, active, interested workers. 

We are surprised, therefore, to discover so large a number 
of old men and aside from these, so many men who are physically 
below the standard such excellent rewards should command. 

The character of the work performed, too, is disappointing. 
Too frequently it is haphazard and lacks thoroughness, which 
means that much fine dirt is left on the streets to be gound by 
traffic to dust, thus defeating the ultimate object of street cleaning, 
the elimination of dust. 

The disposition, in many cases, to kill time in keeping the 
two-wheeled dirt receptacle abreast of the work or to linger about 
the point where the full cans of dirt are temporarily deposited, 
or deliberately to pursue an elusive piece of paper along the side¬ 
walks, savors too much of time serving rather than intelligent 
purpose to do the work to the best advantage and to do it well. 

It is apparent that there is a general lack of instruction in 
proper methods of work and a want of discipline which implies 
inadequate control and direction. 


Methods of Work and Equipment 

The methods of work remained the same as those in effect 
under Col. Waring’s administration. The following table indi¬ 
cates the slight change in the kind of equipment employed in 
Manhattan and Bronx, as compared with 1914. 


22 











1897 

Horses. 945 

Ash and Garbage Carts. 875 

Paper Carts. 150 

Ash and Garbage Trucks. 6 

Sweeping Machines. 18 

Snow Plows. 29 

Sprinkling Trucks. 33 

Bicycles. 75 

Squeegee Machines. 

Flushing Machines. 


1914 

1,564 

1,438 

236 

37 

97 

55 

52 

62 

9 

5 


The only modern mechanical devices for combating the dust 
evil, it will be noted, are five flushing machines and nine squeegee 
machines, all horse drawn. This equipment is not up to date 
in its motive power, and is a but a small fraction of what is needed 
for the entire city. 


Col. Waring’s Policies Are Ignored 

Some of the things which Col. Waring instituted and thought 
important in the control of his work and in the development of 
higher standards of work were abandoned. 

The Board of Conference was discontinued, the order pro¬ 
mulgating the rules and regulations governing the operation of 
the Department and according to which discipline was regulated 
and enforced was rescinded. The results of the investigation 
and study of conditions affecting the quantity of work were never 
applied, nor was the recommendation that the study of these 
matters be continued given favorable attention. 

In fact, there is or was not at the time the present Com¬ 
missioner took charge of the Department, any record in the mam 
office of what any individual sweeper or driver in the Department 
was doing in the streets. The work allotted to these men was 
fixed by the section foreman, with the approval of the Superin¬ 
tendent; therefore a day’s work was a question of the individual 
opinion of the section foreman. In other words, the amount of 
work allotted to a man was based on opinion rather than on 
fact or any attempt to approximate the fact. 

These matters, it may be said, have been revived in principle 
if not in exact form, by the present Commissioner and put in 
force. 


Method of Employing Commissioners 

The deficiencies in the management of the Department 
since 1898 are due to the method of employing Commissioners. 
Between 1898 and 1914 the Department has had eight different 
heads, or an average of one every two years. This meant that 
with each change in Commissioners there was a change of Depu¬ 
ties a change of policies and a general uneasiness and lack ot 
interest in the work all through the Department until the new 
Commissioner had announced his policies. 

23 












Furthermore, of all the Commissioners who have held office 
since the creation of the Department in 1881, only one, the present 
Commissioner, had any previous experience in conducting street 
cleaning operations. 

The result of such a situation was that the Commissioner 
was unable to fit himself to obtain control and direction of the 
Department before he was replaced. 

The much-mentioned complaint against the method of 
employment of labor which was corrected as far as possible by 
placing the uniformed force under Civil Service, has been taken 
care of fairly satisfactorily. 

The employment of Commissioners, if subjected to a test of 
fitness, and the tenure of office made dependent on the results 
obtained, would be placed on the right basis. 

The difficulties confronting a new Commissioner to-day in 
rehabilitating the Department and restoring discipline are great, 
and will require time and patience to overcome. 


WHAT ARE THE SOURCES OF STREET REFUSE? 

To obtain a comprehensive idea of the problem of street 
cleaning, we must know the sources of street dirt and dust. 

Let us imagine we are looking down on the City of New 
York, and that it is possible to distinguish all activities in the 
streets below. The first thing that impresses us in regard to 
the streets is the traffic, and the next thing is its unequal dis- 
tijbution over the city. Thousands of vehicles are moving to 
and fro. At some points there is apparently interminable con¬ 
gestion; at others there is not a vehicle in a block; and between 
these extremes all degrees of traffic as to volume are represented. 

We note considerable diversity in the character of the vehicles 
observed. Street cars are moving along a great many of the 
streets. In some streets the motor driven vehicles predominate; 
in others the horse drawn vehicles. In others the two are mixed 
in every proportion. 

If we look closely we will see that the distribution of the street 
sweepers over the city follows fairly closely the distribution of 
the traffic, for the traffic, particularly the horses and other animals, 
are responsible for by far the greater portion of the dirt in the 
streets, although this source is growing less by reason of the steady 
increase in the number of motor driven vehicles. A closer inspec¬ 
tion will show wherein the street cleaners’ efforts are not confined 
to picking up the dirt of this nature. 

Miscellaneous Street Litter Is Unsightly 

We will see that at one point or another litter—paper of all 
kinds, fruit skins, excelsior, straw, sweepings from sidewalk, dirt 
swept or thrown from the doors and windows of buildings, slops, 
garbage, ashes, etc.—is appearing in the streets, and that it in- 


24 



No. 4. Equipment for Sweeper on Granite Pavement. 








creases the work of the street cleaner. More than this, the litter 
is Unsightly, and gives an otherwise clean street the appearance 
of neglect. 

We know there are ordinances prohibiting these practices, 
and may wonder at the inactivity of the nearby police. The 
individual policeman believes that the little dirt that is thrown 
in the street within his sight is a trifling matter, and furthermore, 
he knows that if an arrest is made he would probably have to 
appear in court on his time off duty. 

The dirt of this kind one policeman sees in day may be a 
small matter, but when the quantity is multiplied by 10,000, 
it amounts to a widespread eyesore, and a matter of considerable 
actual expense to the city. 


Vehicles Spill Material 

Scattered here and there over the city we can see hundreds 
of wagons and motor trucks hauling sand, plaster, steam ashes, 
cellar dirt, broken stone, lime, brick, cement, gravel, sawdust, 
and in fact every kind of finely divided material. Some of these 
vehicles are overloaded, and some have loosely joined bodies. 
In either case a trail of dust and dirt is left along the street, 
detracting from the appearance of the street and adding further 
to the labor of the street cleaner. 


Building Construction Causes Dirt and Dust 

In hundreds of places we see buildings being demolished, or 
in course of construction. Tons of material are being loaded and 
unloaded. Dirt and dust fill the air in the immediate neighbor¬ 
hood. The unconfined building material, which in many cases 
extends into the street, beyond the limits of the building permit, 
is scattered by traffic, and more work is given the street cleaner. 

I have found by actual measurement that the quantity of 
fine dust from a block where two office buildings were being 
erected on opposite sides of the street, is increased more than 
100 per cent by reason of the building operations. 

Just why a building contractor is allowed to use the street 
for a storehouse, to the inconvenience and discomfort of the 
occupants of adjoining buildings, and to the people using the 
streets, and at an added expense to the city in street cleaning, 
is difficult to explain. That building material can be unloaded 
and stored inside the house line is often illustrated in the congested 
sections of the city. 


Coal and Ash Service Produces Dirt 

In front of many office and other large buildings we observe 
coal being unloaded from vehicles and deposited through an 
opening in the sidewalk; and from other buildings ashes are 
being lifted through similar openings and stored on the sidewalk 


26 


to await the cartman’s convenience. From these two operations 
considerable dirt is left on the sidewalk, and is later blown or 
swept into the streets. 

Subway Construction Is Source of Complaints 

From our elevated position we can get a full view of the effect 
of subway construction on the condition of the streets, and can 
appreciate what this extensive disturbance of street pavement 
means in the way of extra work for the Street Cleaning Depart¬ 
ment. 

Not only the street on which subway work is in progress is 
littered with dirt, which is rapidly reduced to dust that hangs 
over the entire street, but every cross street for one or more 
blocks east and west is in the same condition. In 1914 1,524,540 
square yards of pavement, the equivalent of 86 miles of street 
30 feet wide, were tom up in the conduct of subway work. 

Many complaints against the Department and much criti¬ 
cism of its work is the result of observation of conditions along 
the route of the subway, and of irritating experiences with the 
dirt and dust incident to this work. 

The impossibility of keeping clean the streets affected by 
subway construction, with only the number of sweepers assigned 
to these streets under normal conditions, has a tendency to 
demoralize the work of the men, and to lower their standard of 
cleanliness. Provision should be made at the expense of the 
city or of the subway contractors, if possible, for additional labor 
to meet such abnormal conditions. 

Disturbed Pavements Cause Dirt 

The disturbance of pavements by public utility corporations 
and others, for the purpose of laying or repairing wires, pipes, 
etc., underground, is a source of much dirt, and of injury to the 
pavement, as the latter cannot be replaced in its original condition. 

Often a costly street pavement just laid must be tom up 
to repair a leak or break. The remedy for these matters is the 
constmction and use of galleries to carry all underground work. 

The quantity of pavement affected in this way in 1914 was 
323,596 square yards, or the equivalent of 19 miles of street 
30 feet wide. 

The Necessary Pushcart is Lawless and Should Be Controlled 

We will observe, in some sections of the city, but particularly 
on the East Side below Twelfth Street, that street after street is 
continuously lined on either side for blocks, with pushcarts from 
which wares of all kinds are being offered for sale. Discarded 
refuse—paper, fruit skins, vegetables, fish scales, and anything 
else of no value—is deliberately dumped into the streets. This 
form of market seems necessary to the life of the people in 
these districts and evidently must be abided. However, every 
pushcart owner should be required to provide a receptacle of 

27 


some kind attached to his cart, and to place in it all refuse which 
later can be collected by the Department. This plan, carried out, 
would relieve the street sweeper of much unnecessary labor, and 
it would add greatly to the appearance of the streets and the 
comfort of the people, especially the children who spend much 
time in the streets. 


Dirt from Chimneys and Roofs of Buildings 

The roofs of buildings, we may observe, appear to be fairly 
clean, but a close inspection will disclose the presence of gravel, 
fine cinders and dust, which is set in motion on windy days and 
much of it finally reaches the streets to supplement the daily 
emissions direct from thousands of chimneys. 

Mr. R. P. Bolton, in a paper on “The Problem of City Dust,” 
estimates the quantity of cinders and soot deposited over 130 
square miles of the closely occupied area of New York at 575 
tons per square mile per year. Much of the dirt and dust on the 
roofs of buildings is the result of shaking rugs and throwing 
sweepings from the floors and other things, from the windows on 
a higher level. 


Poor Paving Is Responsible for Much Dirt 

Within the city are many thousand square yards of open 
joint granite pavement which were laid in many cases on earth 
or sand foundations. The spaces between the stone were 
originally filled with gravel and cement or tar, but repeated 
disturbances of the paving by public utility companies and others 
and the constant pounding of heavy traffic has loosened this 
filling, and as such it has disappeared and the subsoil has worked 
up through the joints. In dry weather this dirt is converted 
into dust—in wet weather it is mud. Such a pavement is twenty 
per cent more expensive to clean than a smooth surface pavement 
under the same conditions of traffic, because of the extra labor 
necessary and of the greater amount of dirt collected from it. 

The presence of unpaved streets causes much extra work, 
due to the dirt and dust tracked and blown from them onto the 
paved areas. 


Broken Pavements Cause Extra Labor 

Here and there, and entirely too frequently, we can see a 
street sweeper taking up unnecessary time in removing the dirt 
and dust collected in a depression or break in the pavement 
surface. The failure to make repairs promptly is not only costly 
to the Department of Street Cleaning, but to the Borough Presi¬ 
dents, who have charge of street repairs, because the continual 
impact of wheels on the edges and bottoms of a break rapidly 
extends the area to be finally repaired. 


28 


Sidewalks Are Ignored 

In our study of conditions in the streets we have noticed 
that considerable dirt accumulates on the sidewalks, and at 
times it is blown by the wind into the streets, and again dirt is 
blown from the streets to the sidewalks. We further observe 
that the street sweeper makes no attempt to clean the portion 
of the street used by pedestrians, but confines his entire attention 
to the roadway. We reach the conclusion that the Street Cleaning 
Department is pretending to do something that it does ,not, for 
its designation does not fit its performances, which is more nearly 
expressed by the name, Roadway Cleaning Department. Its 
present name, however, is descriptive of what it should do, for 
thorough street cleaning work must include the cleaning of the 
entire street from house line to house line. 

The city ordinances provide that the sidewalks shall be 
cleaned of snow by the householders, but no provision seems to 
have been made' for any other cleaning. As far as this other 
cleaning is concerned, the space between the curb and the house 
line is “No Man’s Land.” 

Elevated Railroads Responsible for Dirt and Litter 

The pillars of the elevated railroads, we will note, are fre¬ 
quently an obstacle to the continuous operation of the street 
sweeper, and it is noticed that after every rain the sticky condition 
of the pavement shaded by the overhead structure, continues 
much longer than on streets exposed to the action of sun and 
wind. There is also much complaint from the fact that news¬ 
papers and other things are thrown from the windows of cars, 
and that the sweepings from the platforms and refuse incidental 
to the repair of the elevated structure, finally find their way into 
the streets. 

The sources enumerated account for about 15 per cent of 
the total dirt collected in the streets. Assuming this means 
that 15 per cent of the total labor of sweeping is required in the 
collection of this dirt from the pavement, the cost imposed on 
the Department by reason of poor paving and improper use of 
the streets is $330,000.00 annually, to say nothing of the cost 
of cartage and final disposal. 

These sources of dirt cannot be eliminated, but a large part 
of the above sum can be saved if the Department of Street Cleaning 
has the co-operation of the different city departments. 

The co-operation of the police and necessarily the courts, 
is needed in the strict enforcement of the ordinances prohibiting 
the littering of the streets. 

The co-operation of the Health Department is necessary 
in the enforcement of the laws as to insufficient waste receptacles 
and other sanitary requirements. 

The co-operation of the Borough Presidents is required in 
keeping the streets in good repair; in compelling those taking 
our permits for disturbance of the street pavement promptly 
and properly to restore the pavement, and to keep in control ex- 

29 



Equipment for Sweeper on Asphalt Pavement 















cavated material, and materials used by them on the streets; in 
keeping catch basins clean, and the inlets thereto open; in com¬ 
pelling building contractors to comply with the requirements of 
their permits. 

The cleaning of the streets is not merely a technical matter; 
it is not a matter that the forces of the Department alone can 
take care of, but a matter in which they must have not only the 
full co-operation of other city departments, but of the people 
themselves. 

The streets are not only a means of getting from door to 
door, but they are the city’s front yard, and they should be kept 
in the condition that would indicate this fact. 

A little care on the part of the people means tidiness in the 
streets, and less expense to the Department. A large percentage 
of the population is thoughtless, and requires but to be reminded. 
A small percentage believes that the independence granted by 
our Constitution is a license to do as they please, regardless of 
the effect of their acts on the community. These should have 
the attention of the police. 


HOW THE WORK IS APPORTIONED 

The process of cleaning the streets is carried out in two 
operations—one, the collection of the refuse from the streets; 
two, the removal of the material to the points of disposal. 

The latter is a simple transportation problem, involving the 
hauling of certain quantities which vary somewhat from day to 
day from definite points, definite distances to the points of dis¬ 
posal. The factors affecting the amount of work a cart, wagon, 
motor vehicle, or other unit can do per day, can be measured 
and a definite standard of work set up. The quantity and quality 
of work can be readily checked. 

The collection of the refuse from the streets presents a differ¬ 
ent problem, the solution of which is more involved, as to a 
determination of standards of work and the quantity and quality 
of work. 


Refuse Accumulates Through 24 Hours 

It will be necessary to make clear the conditions under which 
the dirt appears on the street before considering the quantity 
and quality of work. 

The street refuse is accumulating through every hour of 
the twenty-four, and varies from a fraction of one cubic foot 
per 1,000 square yards of street pavement per twenty-four hours, 
on streets of the lightest traffic, to ten or more cubic feet on streets 
of the heaviest traffic. The proportion of the dirt appearing 
at night, or say from 5 P. M. to 7 A. M. is naturally light, varying 
from nothing to a maximum of 20 per cent of the 24-hour output. 


31 


Character and Distribution of Refuse Vary from Day to Day 

These quantities and likewise their character and distribution 
vary from day to day, and even from hour to hour for the same 
1,000 square yards of pavement. 

Chart No. 1 herewith supplies proof of these claims. This 
chart is made from the records of a route by route measurement 
by volume and weight of the street refuse collected in the course 
of the work of the Citizens’ Street Cleaning Bureau, a private 
organization, of which I have charge, in the so-called downtown 
or loop district of Chicago. 

Curve No. 1 represents the daily variations by weight, and 
Curve No. 2 the daily variations by volume of the quantity of 
street refuse collected from a rough surface, in this case granite. 
Curves Nos. 3 and 4 show the same facts for a smooth street 
surface, here an asphalt pavement. 

The variation in the character of the refuse from day to day 
is indicated in the divergence of the weight curve from the volume 
curve in the case of each of the classes of pavements. 

Curve No. 5 sets forth the variation in the quantity and 
distribution of refuse, by volume, from hour to hour, for one day. 

Street Refuse Is in Two Forms 

Refuse appears on the street in two forms, as fragments of 
various sizes, and as fine dust. For convenience, the former 
will be referred to hereafter as dirt or refuse, and the latter as 
dust or residual dust. 

If a street is given anything like the daily attention it requires, 
the dirt appearing on its surface through the day will lie in detached 
deposits here and there with clean spaces of pavement between 
them. (Chart IV illustrates this point.) It is not necessary 
then to clean the entire street, but simply to remove the individual 
deposits of dirt. 

Hand Collection Principles Defined 

The demands of a proper removal of this refuse from the 
street surface require the observance of two principles: 

1. That the dirt be picked up at or as near as possible 

to its point of origin in the street. 

It must not be pushed in front of a broom or scraper and 
smeared over clean spaces of pavement to the curb, or until the 
accumulation has reached the point where it must be picked up. 
Less labor is required if it is swept into a shovel or scraper just 
where it lies. The cleaning operation on each deposit of dirt 
must be so thorough that no noticeable particles are left behind 
to dry out and to be pulverized by traffic. 

2. That the refuse be collected as near the time of 
origin as possible. 

If it is left in the street over a certain limit of time, which 
will vary with the amount of traffic in the street, the papers 
and light materials will be scattered by the wind and the heavier 


32 


dirt will be tracked and spread over the pavement by passing 
horses and vehicles and embedded in the furrows of open joint 
pavements or smeared over and pasted to the surface of smooth 
pavements, all of which adds to the expense of finally removing it. 
Furthermore, if left too long, the dirt dries out and is ground 
into dust, which is blown about the street—an annoyance and 
discomfort to pedestrians and a cause of damage to furnishings 
in houses and to merchandise exposed for sale inside and outside 
of markets and stores. 

Evils of Dry Sweeping Obviated 

If the dirt is thoroughly collected just where it lies and while 
it is still moist, no dust will be raised during the operation. 


Ever Present Fine Dust Is An Annoyance and Danger 

If the two principles noted above are vigorously and intel¬ 
ligently applied through the day, there will remain on the street, 
after the day’s work is complete, a very fine dust, the quantity of 
which will depend on the fineness of the broom used in the day’s 
work, and the thoroughness of the cleaning. 

This residual dust is the greatest annoyance and nuisance 
with which the street cleaning forces have to contend, and as a 
medium for disseminating disease germs it is a menace to health. 

It is very difficult to manage, because it is appearing every 
moment on the street from such sources as the thousands of 
chimneys, the roofs of buildings, the fine sand used by the street 
railway companies, the wear from pavements, sidewalks, wheels, 
street car rails, etc.—all of which are without the control of the 
Department of Street Cleaning. 

Quantity and Composition of Dust 

I have attempted in Chicago to separate the sources of dust 
found in the street and to determine the composition and quantity 
of the dust from each source, but so far the results have not been 
entirely satisfactory. 

The information contained in the table below is interesting 
as showing the quantity of dust per thousand square yards of 
surface and its composition and its distribution over the street. 
The street on which this particular test was made is paved with 
creosote wooden block and carries a double car track, which is 
paved with the same material except for two rows of granite 
block along the outside of the outer rails. The sidewalks are of 
cement. The traffic is heavy, as indicated by the accumulation 
of dirt, 8 cu. ft. per 1,000 sq. yd. per 24 hours. 

The dust from the sidewalk, the roadway (from the car 
tracks to the curb) and from the car tracks (See Photograph 
No. 1) was collected with horsehair brooms and measured sepa¬ 
rately and samples of each accumulation were submitted to a 
chemical analysis on a dry basis. 


33 


From this data the following table was obtained: 


Roadway Street Car 

Sidewalk (Curbs to Car) Right of Way 
Lbs. per 1,000 Lbs. per 1,000 Lbs. per 1,000 
Sq. Yds. Sq. Yds. Sq. Yds. 

of Dust of Dust of Dust 


Silica. 0.96 

Carbon and Organic Matter. 0.67 

Calcium Carbonate. 0.20 

Magnesium Carbonate. 0.02 

Iron. 0.11 

U ndetermined.. 0.04 


4.70 

50.50 

3.00 

26.00 

0.60 

6.00 

0.30 

2.30 

0.25 

3.00 

0.15 

0.20 


2.00 9.00 88.00 


Composition of Street Dust 


The silica consists mainly of dirt from the street, sand and 
gravel from the roofs of buildings, leakage from vehicles, and 
the fine sand used on the car tracks to facilitate the stopping of 
cars. 

The organic matter and carbon consists of refuse paper, 
manure, soot, coal and various other volatile matters commonly 
found in the street. 

The carbonate of lime is principally from the limestone, 
spilled from vehicles conveying building materials, etc., and 
likewise most of the carbonate of lime found in the dust from the 
sidewalk is from this source, although some of it is from the wearing 
down of cement sidewalks by pedestrians. 

The iron content exists in the free state and the natural 
assumption is that most of it comes from the car tracks, although 
some of it is from the wheels of vehicles and from the shoes of 


horses and even of pedestrians. 

It is interesting to compare the quantity of dust collected 
from a street carrying car tracks with the quantity collected 
from a street without car tracks. For purposes of comparison 
the same classification as to the sidewalk, roadway and car tracks 
is maintained—a space 16 feet wide through the middle of the 
street, representing the car tracks, in the case of the street without 
car tracks. 


Sidewalk 
Lbs. per 1,000 
Sq. Yds. 
of Dust 

Street with Car Tracks. 4.30 

Street without Car Tracks. . 4.00 


Roadway 
(Curbs to Car 
Tracks) 
Lbs. per 1,000 
Sq. Yds. 
of Dust 
6.00 
9.60 


Street Car 
Right of Way 
Lbs. per 1,000 
Sq. Yds. 
of Dust 
90.00 
2.60 


Street Cars Make Dust and Car Tracks Collect It 

The proportionately large quantity of dust collected from 
the street car tracks is due to (1) the excessive amount of fine 
sand used on the street car rails, (2) the fact that the grooved 
rails and other breaks in the continuity of the street surface within 


34 









the car tracks catch and hold the dirt and dust, (3) the difficulty 
of cleaning the grooves and the space between the rails in the 
daytime because of congestion of traffic. 

It is clear that the operation of street cars is a source of much 
dust and that the car rails collect dust and are a hindrance to 
thorough day cleaning. 

The total quantity of residual dust, if spread evenly over 
the whole surface of the street, would amount to 0.15 of an ounce 
per square foot of street surface, which of course would hardly 
be noticed unless the wind is blowing, or a fast moving motor 
or street car passes over it. 

How Dust Is Removed 

Any system of street cleaning, to be effective, must provide 
every means possible, such as artificial sprinkling, flushing the 
streets and even scrubbing them, to combat the evil of fine dust. 
I find the most effective method and means of routing the dust 
is to flush the streets at night with a motor driven machine carrying 
a large tank from which the water is forced out under any desired 
pressure, up to 70 lbs., by a pump driven from the flywheel of 
the motor. Following this operation the sidewalks are flushed 
and hand squeegeed and finally the gutters are washed and 
squeegeed to remove any dust from the roadway or sidewalk 
collected in low places there. 

When the weather does not permit of flushing, the noticeable 
deposits of dust are collected by the men cleaning sidewalks. 
These men are provided with horsehair brooms, by careful use 
of which they can collect the dust without causing a nuisance 
by setting it astir. 


Quantity of Work 

The quantity of work—the square yards of street pavement 
a man can clean daily—will depend not only on the refuse accumu¬ 
lations per thousand square yards per 24 hours, the kind of 
pavement, whether rough blocks with open joints, or a con¬ 
tinuously smooth surface, condition of pavement—whether in 
good repair or not, but on the quality of work—whether thorough 
or not—and on the standard of cleanliness. 

The first three factors are definite matters of fact. The 
remaining two have so far been considered questions of opinion, 
and have not to my knowledge been defined. 

Quality of Work 

The quality of work is a very important consideration, for a 
street surface not thoroughly cleaned cannot be called clean. If 
the horse droppings are carelessly picked up, if the dirt in the 
crevices and depressions of the pavements is not thoroughly 
removed; if, in fact, every bit of detachable refuse is not collected, 
the street has been merely brushed over, and the condition of the 
pavement falls far short of the aims of proper and sanitary street 
cleaning. 


35 


How Quality of Work is Measured 

Theoretically, the measure of the quality of work is the 
quantity of material remaining on the streets after the. day s 
work is complete, less any accumulations after the beginning 
of the sweeper’s last trip over the street. But, as pointed out, 
there is always on the street at the end of a day’s work, a certain 
quantity of fine dust which cannot be collected by the means 
at the sweeper’s disposal. This quantity varies from day to day, 
which is due to a number of factors not under the control of the 
sweeper. Therefore, unless there is a very noticeable increase in 
the residual dust, it is difficult to determine whether or not the 
sweeper is at fault. 

Furthermore, there might be enough undigested portions 
of hay, oats, and other feed, and bits of paper, together with 
matches, cigar or cigarette butts, and other noticeable odds and 
ends, scattered over the street to give it an untidy and an un¬ 
sightly appearance; and yet the total quantity of these would 
affect but little the amount of residual dust on the street. 

Practically, then, this test for quality is not, as a rule, feasible. 
The practical day to day determination of this element of the 
work is by the eye of trained and experienced inspectors, who are 
alert and observant. The Photographs Nos. 2 and 3 indicate 
our standard for good quality. 


What Is a Standard of Cleanliness? 

When we say a street is clean, what do we mean? In other 
words, what is a clean street? 

Absolute cleanliness, the ideal condition, means that a street 
must be continuously free of dirt and dust. This condition can 
be maintained as far as the heavier fragments of street refuse 
are concerned, but the cost would be prohibitive. Moreover, it 
is not necessary, for this dirt is not objectionable, if removed 
before it dries out, or is scattered, and ground into the pavement 
by traffic. The length of time it can be left on the street will 
depend upon the amount of the twenty-four hour accumulation 
per thousand square yards of street surface; or, in other words, 
on the volume and kind of traffic. 

The residual dust from one or the other of many sources, 
although it may be hardly perceptible, will always lie on the street. 
Therefore, absolute cleanliness is an impossibility and will con¬ 
tinue to be so until the sources of dust beyond the control of the 
street cleaner are eliminated. 

The length of time any refuse other than dust is permitted 
to remain on the street will determine the standard of cleanliness 
for that street. 

A standard of cleanliness, then, is an arbitrary matter, but 
it can be made definite for certain conditions of traffic, etc., by 
specifying the length of time any refuse other than fine dust can 
remain on the street. 


36 



Motor Flushing Machine 

















In order to make this point clear I will have to refer again 
to my own experience. In the conduct of the work of the Citizens’ 
Street Cleaning Bureau, we have developed in following closely 
the hand collection principles stated heretofore, what may be 
called the intensive method of street cleaning. The aim of this 
method is not only to clean a street thoroughly, but to keep it 
continuously clean throughout the working day. 

The street sweepers are assigned a definite length of street, 
called a route, to care for as in the “patrol” or “block” system 
of street cleaning. The men are required to clean thoroughly 
their routes in the first hour of work in the morning, and thereafter 
to keep the refuse picked up practically as fast as it reaches the 
pavement. In other words, the work is not allowed to accumulate, 
but is taken care of as it presents itself. 

It is apparent that to do this the number of cleanings or 
trips over the route formerly given must be greatly increased. 
This increase is expressed in the statement that the standard of 
work under the “block” system is based on a certain number of 
cleanings per day, while the intensive method requires a certain 
number of cleanings per hour. 

The advantage gained in the latter method is that for the 
same street area cleaned and the same amount of dirt collected 
the length of time the dirt lies in the street is greatly decreased 
by reason of the added number of cleanings and therefore a much 
higher standard of cleanliness is obtained. 

The explanation of the ability of the sweeper to increase so 
greatly the frequency of cleaning is apparent from a study of the 
attached charts which are plotted from records of the location, 
time of deposit and time of collection of every bit of dirt appearing 
on a particular route (in this case, Route No. 16, which is paved 
with asphalt, containing 3,133 sq. yds., and producing 24.7 cu. ft. 
or 737 lbs. of dirt per 24 hours) from 6:45 A. M. to 5:00 P. M. on 
November 3, 1915. 

This route is on State Street, the main downtown thorough¬ 
fare and extends from Madison to Monroe. Photographs 2 and 3 
show the condition of this route while traffic is on it. 

Chart III is made up to ten diagrams, one for each hour of 
the day; each successive diagram after 8.00 o’clock A. M. in¬ 
cludes all the deposits of dirt for the preceding hours. The chart 
therefore is a visualization of the refuse accumulated on the route 
at the end of each hour—assuming that the street is not swept 
nor the dirt disturbed. 

Let us say the route is swept once per day, the dirt to be 
collected is represented in the last diagram of the chart from 
4:00 to 5:00 o’clock. The actual condition of the refuse would 
not be as indicated—-it would not be in individual deposits. The 
sweeper would find it spread over the entire street and adhering 
to the pavement by the action of hours of heavy traffic and he 
would be compelled laboriously to sweep with a hand broom every 
square foot of the surface to clean it thoroughly. The distance 
walked by the sweeper in the course of the day’s work would be 


38 


at least 4.3 miles, which means that he must sweep a like distance 
as this act is continuous through the day. 

If we assume that the route is cleaned once each hour the 
accumulation per hour is indicated in Chart IV (we will disregard 
for the present the figures shown) which represents the refuse 
actually collected from the route on the date named. 

The deposits of dirt are shown with clean spaces of pavement 
between them and this will be the actual condition for the dirt 
will be scattered by traffic but little, when the route is cleaned 
as frequently as we are assuming it to be. 

The sweeper can now use, in addition to his broom, a 
a pan scraper which permits of more rapid and easier work than 
with a broom alone, and as he can collect each deposit of dirt 
where it lies without cleaning the entire street a trip over the route 
is rapidly made. The distance now walked is a minimum of 
6 miles per day of ten hours. Therefore the distance walked has 
increased and the labor of sweeping has been lessened. 

Now if the route is swept seven times in an hour, as shown 
in Chart V, which is an intensive study of the one to two o’clock 
diagram from Chart IV, we will see that on trip No. 6 no dirt 
was collected at all and that the greatest number of pick-ups 
for the hour was six on trip No. 7. Therefore the sweeper is able 
to clean the street about as fast as he can walk and the work is 
accordingly much less laborious than in either of the other 
instances. 

The route in question was swept on the date indicated, 
November 3, ninety times, the sweeper walking a minimum 
distance of eight miles, in ten hours. That is to say the sweeper 
has shifted a considerable part of his daily burden from his arms 
to his legs. The total physical effort is no greater than in the 
other instances. 

The streets cleaned by the Citizen’s Street Cleaning Bureau 
produce from 5 to 8 cu. ft. of street refuse per 1,000 sq. yds. per 
24 hours. On streets of lighter traffic and therefore accumulating 
less dirt, the street areas or routes allotted per man would natu¬ 
rally be increased. In such case, if the streets are the same 
width, a sweeper would have a greater length of street to traverse 
and would accordingly make less trips per day. The length of 
time elapsing before collection would be increased. In other 
words, another time standard must be established for the new 
conditions. 

It is interesting to note, from the study of Chart V, that there 
are periods totaling 21 minutes in the hour from one to two 
o’clock in which the street was entirely free of dirt. These clean 
periods average 3J hours per day for the entire district cleaned. 

Chart VI shows the condition of route 16 at the end of each 
of the seven trips made over it between one and two o’clock, on 
November 3. Chart VII shows the actual route traversed by 
sweeper on each of ten trips from one to two o’clock on Novem¬ 
ber 24. 

Now, if we return to Chart IV and consider the time elapsing 
before collection of the individual deposits of dirt from route 16, 


39 


we will find, if we exclude the first hour of work and the noon 
hour, that 48 per cent of the total pick-ups were made in one 
minute, 72 per cent in two minutes, 94 per cent in six minutes and 
97 per cent in ten minutes. Tests made on all the routes cleaned 
by the Bureau show that under our system of work, it is easily 
possible to collect every deposit of dirt, other than that excepted, 
within fifteen minutes of its appearance on the streets. 

The standard of cleanliness, then, for our streets, under 
existing heavy traffic conditions, is that the street shall be thor¬ 
oughly cleaned and that no dirt other than excepted and the 
fine dust shall lie on the street over a maximum time of fifteen 
minutes. 

While our standard of cleanliness is defined and can be 
readily checked within close limits, and is checked as illustrated 
in the above charts from time to time, the day to day determina¬ 
tion of this factor is by the eye of the foreman. The standard 
of cleanliness is so fixed in the minds of the foremen that they can 
tell at a glance whether or not a sweeper is abreast of his work. 


Cost of Maintaining Standard Defined 

The standard of cleanliness here defined is maintained in 
but few cities anywhere, so naturally the question may arise as 
to the cost of maintaining it. 

The variation in wages paid labor, hours worked, cartage 
costs, etc., in different cities, would take the meaning out of the 
figures I would submit. The best way I can answer the question 
is to make a comparison between what individual men are doing 
in Chicago with what they are doing in New York under similar 
conditions. 

There is no section in New York the exact counterpart of 
the loop in Chicago. The nearest approach to the same traffic 
conditions is the first district which is that portion of the Borough 
of Manhattan south of Canal Street. Making allowance for the 
proportionately greater area of granite in New York, the com¬ 
parison would stand as follows: 

Cu. Yd. of Dirt 
per 1,000 Sq. Yds. 

Area per Man Times Cleaned of Pavement 
Sq. Yds. per Day per Year 


New York City. 3,250 5 or 6 56 

Citizens Street Cleaning 

Bureau. 3,000 56 80 


The areas cleaned per man do not vary greatly. The times 
cleaned per day in Chicago are five times greater than in New 
York. In other words, the dirt lies on the street in Chicago 
only one-tenth the length of time it is allowed to lie in New York. 
The amount of dirt collected is 50 per cent greater than in New 
York. 

The standards of cleanliness and the quality of work being 
specified a block-by-block survey of the quantity of refuse accu¬ 
mulating per twenty-four hours, the kinds of pavement, the 
condition of pavement and other factors affecting the amount 


40 




of work a sweeper should do as a daily task, will furnish the 
information for the uniform allotment of work for every type of 
conditions. 

Frequent and thorough inspections must be depended on 
to obtain daily the quality of work and to maintain the standard 
of cleanliness. 

In fact, if the work is fairly proportioned to the individual 
laborer and he is carefully instructed in his duties, the proper 
cleaning of the streets resolves itself into a matter of a thoroughly 
instructed and disciplined organization continuous in its manage¬ 
ment and of adequate and trained inspectors. 

A standard of cleanliness, then, for a city, will depend not 
only on the amount of money appropriated for street cleaning, 
but on the ability of the head of the street cleaning forces to 
apportion the work to the individual to the best advantage and 
to build up an organization that is efficient in supervision, inspec¬ 
tion and in thorough cleaning. 

MACHINE CLEANING 

Machine sweepers are either horse drawn or propelled by 
motor. The ordinary type consists of a four wheeled vehicle 
carrying a revolving brush located at an angle with the direction 
of travel and which may be raised or lowered at will by the 
operator. It is preceded by a sprinkling wagon; otherwise its 
operation is intolerable by reason of the dust raised. 

The other type of machine—the so-called pick-up sweeper— 
differs from the above device in that instead of sweeping the dirt 
to the gutter it is picked up and carried by a conveyor into cans 
or other receptacles enclosed in the machine, which, when full, 
are placed on the sidewalk or dumped into a collecting vehicle. 

The work of these machines is not as thorough as hand 
cleaning and it must be supplemented by hand labor, not only 
to take up the stroke of the machine, but to clean the refuse from 
depressions and crevices and remove other dirt left by the machine. 

Machines are economical only on streets of heavy traffic 
that cannot be cleaned but once per day. 

FLUSHING 

The methods of flushing with water include the use of a hose 
or a horse drawn machine or a motor driven flusher and washing 
with a squeegee machine. 

Hand Method 

By the hand method, a hose is attached to the hydrant and 
the workman holding the nozzle plays a stream of water upon 
the pavement. For the best result, this operation is followed by 
men with squeegees, who remove the surplus water from the 
pavement, leaving it dry and clean. This method is effective, 
but it is more expensive and wasteful of water than cleaning with 
a machine. 


41 


Horse Drawn Machine 

A number of machines have been developed in the past few 
years for pressure flushing. These machines are of two types, 
one which forces the water upon the pavement by means- of 
compressed air; the other which employs a pump to give the 
water the required pressure for effective cleaning. The com¬ 
pressed air flushing machines are equipped with an iron water¬ 
tight tank, into which the water is forced from the hydrant, 
compressing the air in the tank to the same pressure as the water 
in the main. 

The other type of horse-drawn machine is fitted with a pump 
operated with a gasoline engine, attached to the rear end of the 
wagon, and has the advantage over the compressed air machine 
in that a constant pressure can be maintained until all the water 
is exhausted in the tank. A difficulty in the operation of this 
machine is that the vibration of the machine in motion is con¬ 
stantly jarring the engine out of adjustment and much time is 
wasted in keeping it in order. 

The compressed air machines are simple in operation, do 
not easily get out of order, can be operated by any workman, 
but much time is consumed in filling and emptying the tank. 
The principal objection, however, is that the pressure in the 
machine begins to go down the moment the valves are opened, 
and before the tank is empty it is exhausted and the water is 
running out simply under gravity with but little washing effect. 

Motor Driven Flusher 

The most effective type of machine for water cleaning is 
the motor flusher, which consists of a tank of about double the 
capacity of the horse drawn machine, mounted on a motor truck 
and provided with a pump which is operated by a shaft inde¬ 
pendent of the driving shaft of the machine, connected with the 
flywheel. The advantage of this machine is that it can be operated 
constantly at any desired pressure and the pressure is independent 
of the speed at which the machine is traveling. Therefore the 
same flushing effect can be maintained, regardless of the rate of 
speed of the machine. 

The cost of operating these machines is less than either hand 
flushing or flushing with a horse drawn vehicle and the work is 
much more satisfactory. 

In certain localities, where the traffic is very light, where 
the pavements are properly laid on concrete foundations and 
are in good repair, where the sewers are capable of carrying the 
refuse, the entire cleaning of the streets can be effected eco¬ 
nomically and satisfactorily by flushing with water. 

Squeegee Machine 

The squeegee machine is ordinarily a four wheel wagon, 
horse drawn or motor driven, carrying a water tank and provided 
with a revolving cylinder, equipped with rubber strips running 

42 


spirally around it. The water is applied ahead of this device, 
which scours the street as it moves along. The cylinder is set 
at an angle with the direction of travel, so that all refuse collected 
is forced toward the curb where it may be picked up by the street 
sweepers. 

This machine is also used without the tank to scrub the 
street after a rain or to follow flushing operations by other means 
and perform the same office as a hand squeegee. Its chief use 
is upon asphalt or other smooth pavements. It cannot remove 
material from depressions or joints in the pavement. 

STREET SPRINKLING 

If the cleansing of the fine dust from the streets is thoroughly 
performed at night, the streets will require but little sprinkling 
in the day time. The dust on streets without car tracks is forced 
by reason of the slope of the pavement and the action of traffic, 
to the gutter. In such cases, it is necessary to sprinkle lightly 
the gutters only. Furthermore, it overcomes the objections of 
the motorist to any wetting of the street. If there are car tracks, 
these, for reasons heretofore given, should be wet lightly. 

The number of sprinklings necessary per day will depend 
on the weather conditions. A hot day naturally will require 
more than a cool one. The number necessary on a dry hot day 
is greater than on a merely hot and still greater on a dry, hot, 
windy day. 


43 




























































































































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